Category Archives: tutorial

Tutorial – L298N Dual Motor Controller Modules and Arduino

Learn how to use inexpensive L298N motor control modules to drive DC and stepper motors with Arduino.

You don’t have to spend a lot of money to control motors with an Arduino or compatible board. After some hunting around we found a neat motor control module based on the L298N H-bridge IC that can allows you to control the speed and direction of two DC motors, or control one bipolar stepper motor with ease.

The L298N H-bridge module can be used with motors that have a voltage of between 5 and 35V DC. With the module used in this tutorial, there is also an onboard 5V regulator, so if your supply voltage is up to 12V you can also source 5V from the board.

So let’s get started!

L298N Dual Motor Controller Module 2A from PMD Way

First we’ll run through the connections, then explain how to control DC motors then a stepper motor. At this point, review the connections on the L298N H-bridge module.

Consider the following image – match the numbers against the list below the image:

L298N Dual Motor Controller Module 2A from PMD Way
  1. DC motor 1 “+” or stepper motor A+
  2. DC motor 1 “-” or stepper motor A-
  3. 12V jumper – remove this if using a supply voltage greater than 12V DC. This enables power to the onboard 5V regulator
  4. Connect your motor supply voltage here, maximum of 35V DC. Remove 12V jumper if >12V DC
  5. GND
  6. 5V output if 12V jumper in place, ideal for powering your Arduino (etc)
  7. DC motor 1 enable jumper. Leave this in place when using a stepper motor. Connect to PWM output for DC motor speed control.
  8. IN1
  9. IN2
  10. IN3
  11. IN4
  12. DC motor 2 enable jumper. Leave this in place when using a stepper motor. Connect to PWM output for DC motor speed control.
  13. DC motor 2 “+” or stepper motor B+
  14. DC motor 2 “-” or stepper motor B-

Controlling DC Motors

To control one or two DC motors is quite easy with the L298N H-bridge module. First connect each motor to the A and B connections on the L298N module. If you’re using two motors for a robot (etc) ensure that the polarity of the motors is the same on both inputs. Otherwise you may need to swap them over when you set both motors to forward and one goes backwards!

Next, connect your power supply – the positive to pin 4 on the module and negative/GND to pin 5. If you supply is up to 12V you can leave in the 12V jumper (point 3 in the image above) and 5V will be available from pin 6 on the module. This can be fed to your Arduino’s 5V pin to power it from the motors’ power supply. Don’t forget to connect Arduino GND to pin 5 on the module as well to complete the circuit.

Now you will need six digital output pins on your Arduino, two of which need to be PWM (pulse-width modulation) pins. PWM pins are denoted by the tilde (“~”) next to the pin number, for example:

Arduino UNO PWM pins

Finally, connect the Arduino digital output pins to the driver module. In our example we have two DC motors, so digital pins D9, D8, D7 and D6 will be connected to pins IN1, IN2, IN3 and IN4 respectively. Then connect D10 to module pin 7 (remove the jumper first) and D5 to module pin 12 (again, remove the jumper).

The motor direction is controlled by sending a HIGH or LOW signal to the drive for each motor (or channel). For example for motor one, a HIGH to IN1 and a LOW to IN2 will cause it to turn in one direction, and  a LOW and HIGH will cause it to turn in the other direction.

However the motors will not turn until a HIGH is set to the enable pin (7 for motor one, 12 for motor two). And they can be turned off with a LOW to the same pin(s). However if you need to control the speed of the motors, the PWM signal from the digital pin connected to the enable pin can take care of it.

This is what we’ve done with the DC motor demonstration sketch. Two DC motors and an Arduino Uno are connected as described above, along with an external power supply. Then enter and upload the following sketch:

// connect motor controller pins to Arduino digital pins
// motor one
int enA = 10;
int in1 = 9;
int in2 = 8;
// motor two
int enB = 5;
int in3 = 7;
int in4 = 6;
void setup()
{
  // set all the motor control pins to outputs
  pinMode(enA, OUTPUT);
  pinMode(enB, OUTPUT);
  pinMode(in1, OUTPUT);
  pinMode(in2, OUTPUT);
  pinMode(in3, OUTPUT);
  pinMode(in4, OUTPUT);
}
void demoOne()
{
  // this function will run the motors in both directions at a fixed speed
  // turn on motor A
  digitalWrite(in1, HIGH);
  digitalWrite(in2, LOW);
  // set speed to 200 out of possible range 0~255
  analogWrite(enA, 200);
  // turn on motor B
  digitalWrite(in3, HIGH);
  digitalWrite(in4, LOW);
  // set speed to 200 out of possible range 0~255
  analogWrite(enB, 200);
  delay(2000);
  // now change motor directions
  digitalWrite(in1, LOW);
  digitalWrite(in2, HIGH);  
  digitalWrite(in3, LOW);
  digitalWrite(in4, HIGH); 
  delay(2000);
  // now turn off motors
  digitalWrite(in1, LOW);
  digitalWrite(in2, LOW);  
  digitalWrite(in3, LOW);
  digitalWrite(in4, LOW);
}
void demoTwo()
{
  // this function will run the motors across the range of possible speeds
  // note that maximum speed is determined by the motor itself and the operating voltage
  // the PWM values sent by analogWrite() are fractions of the maximum speed possible 
  // by your hardware
  // turn on motors
  digitalWrite(in1, LOW);
  digitalWrite(in2, HIGH);  
  digitalWrite(in3, LOW);
  digitalWrite(in4, HIGH); 
  // accelerate from zero to maximum speed
  for (int i = 0; i < 256; i++)
  {
    analogWrite(enA, i);
    analogWrite(enB, i);
    delay(20);
  } 
  // decelerate from maximum speed to zero
  for (int i = 255; i >= 0; --i)
  {
    analogWrite(enA, i);
    analogWrite(enB, i);
    delay(20);
  } 
  // now turn off motors
  digitalWrite(in1, LOW);
  digitalWrite(in2, LOW);  
  digitalWrite(in3, LOW);
  digitalWrite(in4, LOW);  
}
void loop()
{
  demoOne();
  delay(1000);
  demoTwo();
  delay(1000);
}

So what’s happening in that sketch? In the function demoOne() we turn the motors on and run them at a PWM value of 200. This is not a speed value, instead power is applied for 200/255 of an amount of time at once.

Then after a moment the motors operate in the reverse direction (see how we changed the HIGHs and LOWs in thedigitalWrite() functions?).

To get an idea of the range of speed possible of your hardware, we run through the entire PWM range in the function demoTwo() which turns the motors on and them runs through PWM values zero to 255 and back to zero with the two for loops.

Controlling a Stepper Motor

Stepper motors may appear to be complex, but nothing could be further than the truth. In this example we control a typical NEMA-17 stepper motor that has four wires:

stepper motor from PMD Way

It has 200 steps per revolution, and can operate at at 60 RPM. If you don’t already have the step and speed value for your motor, find out now and you will need it for the sketch.

The key to successful stepper motor control is identifying the wires – that is which one is which. You will need to determine the A+, A-, B+ and B- wires. With our example motor these are red, green, yellow and blue. Now let’s get the wiring done.

Connect the A+, A-, B+ and B- wires from the stepper motor to the module connections 1, 2, 13 and 14 respectively. Place the jumpers included with the L298N module over the pairs at module points 7 and 12. Then connect the power supply as required to points 4 (positive) and 5 (negative/GND).

Once again if your stepper motor’s power supply is less than 12V, fit the jumper to the module at point 3 which gives you a neat 5V power supply for your Arduino.

Next, connect L298N module pins IN1, IN2, IN3 and IN4 to Arduino digital pins D8, D9, D10 and D11 respectively. Finally, connect Arduino GND to point 5 on the module, and Arduino 5V to point 6 if sourcing 5V from the module.

Controlling the stepper motor from your sketches is very simple, thanks to the Stepper Arduino library included with the Arduino IDE as standard.

To demonstrate your motor, simply load the stepper_oneRevolution sketch that is included with the Stepper library, for example:

L298N Dual Motor Controller Module 2A from PMD Way

Finally, check the value for

	const int stepsPerRevolution = 200;

in the sketch and change the 200 to the number of steps per revolution for your stepper motor, and also the speed which is preset to 60 RPM in the following line:

	myStepper.setSpeed(60);

Now you can save and upload the sketch, which will send your stepper motor around one revolution, then back again. This is achieved with the function

	myStepper.step(stepsPerRevolution); // for clockwise
	myStepper.step(-stepsPerRevolution); // for anti-clockwise

So there you have it, an easy an inexpensive way to control motors with your Arduino or compatible board.

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Tutorial – PCF8574 backpacks for LCD modules and Arduino

Learn how to use inexpensive serial backpacks with character LCD modules with your Arduino.

Introduction

Using LCD modules with your Arduino is popular, however the amount of wiring requires time and patience to wire it up correctly – and also uses a lot of digital output pins. That’s why we love these serial backpack modules – they’re fitted to the back of your LCD module and allows connection to your Arduino (or other development board) with only four wires – power, GND, data and clock.

You can use this with LCD modules that have a HD44780-compatible interface with various screen sizes. For example a 16 x 2 module:

16 x 2 character LCD (white text blue background) with parallel interface from PMD Way

The backpack can also be used with 20 x 4 LCDs. The key is that your LCD must have the interface pads in a single row of sixteen, so it matches the pins on the backpack – for example:

16 x 2 character LCD (white text blue background) with parallel interface from PMD Way

Hardware Setup

Now let’s get started. First you need to solder the backpack to your LCD module. While your soldering iron is warming up, check that the backpack pins are straight and fit in the LCD module, for example:

16 x 2 character LCD (white text blue background) with parallel interface from PMD Way

Then solder in the first pin, while keeping the backpack flush with the LCD:

16 x 2 character LCD (white text blue background) with parallel interface from PMD Way

If it’s a bit crooked, you can reheat the solder and straighten it up again. Once you’re satisfied with the alignment, solder in the rest of the pins:

16 x 2 character LCD (white text blue background) with parallel interface from PMD Way

Now to keep things neat, trim off the excess header pins:

16 x 2 character LCD (white text blue background) with parallel interface from PMD Way

Once you’ve finished trimming the header pins, get four male to female jumper wires and connect the LCD module to your Arduino as shown in the following image and table. Then connect your Arduino to the computer via USB:

16 x 2 character LCD (white text blue background) with parallel interface from PMD Way
16 x 2 character LCD (white text blue background) with parallel interface from PMD Way

Software Setup

The next step is to download and install the Arduino I2C LCD library for use with the backpack. First of all, rename the “LiquidCrystal” library folder in your Arduino libraries folder. We do this just to keep it as a backup.

If you’re not sure where your library folder can be found – it’s usually in your sketchbook folder, whose location can usually be found in the Arduino IDE preferences menu:

16 x 2 character LCD (white text blue background) with parallel interface from PMD Way

Next, visit https://bitbucket.org/fmalpartida/new-liquidcrysta… and download the latest file, currently we’re using v1.2.1. Expanding the downloaded .zip file will reveal a new “LiquidCrystal” folder – copy this into your Arduino libraries folder.

Now restart the Arduino IDE if it was already running – or open it now. To test the module we have a demonstration sketch prepared, simply copy and upload the following sketch:

/* Demonstration sketch for PCF8574T I2C LCD Backpack 
Uses library from https://bitbucket.org/fmalpartida/new-liquidcrystal/downloads GNU General Public License, version 3 (GPL-3.0) */
#include <Wire.h>
#include <LCD.h>
#include <LiquidCrystal_I2C.h>

LiquidCrystal_I2C	lcd(0x27,2,1,0,4,5,6,7); // 0x27 is the I2C bus address for an unmodified backpack

void setup()
{
  // activate LCD module
  lcd.begin (16,2); // for 16 x 2 LCD module
  lcd.setBacklightPin(3,POSITIVE);
  lcd.setBacklight(HIGH);
}

void loop()
{
  lcd.home (); // set cursor to 0,0
  lcd.print(" tronixlabs.com"); 
  lcd.setCursor (0,1);        // go to start of 2nd line
  lcd.print(millis());
  delay(1000);
  lcd.setBacklight(LOW);      // Backlight off
  delay(250);
  lcd.setBacklight(HIGH);     // Backlight on
  delay(1000);
}

After a few moments the LCD will be initialised and start to display our URL and the value for millis, then blink the backlight off and on.

If the text isn’t clear, or you just see white blocks – try adjusting the contrast using the potentiometer on the back of the module.

How to control the backpack in your sketch

As opposed to using the LCD module without the backpack, there’s a few extra lines of code to include in your sketches. To review these, open the example sketch mentioned earlier.

You will need the libraries as shown in lines 3, 4 and 5 – and initialise the module as shown in line 7. Note that the default I2C bus address is 0x27 – and the first parameter in the LiquidCrystal_I2C function.

Finally the three lines used in void setup() are also required to initialise the LCD. If you’re using a 20×4 LCD module, change the parameters in the lcd.begin() function.

From this point you can use all the standard LiquidCrystal functions such as lcd.setCursor() to move the cursor and lcd.write() to display text or variables as normal. The backlight can also be turned on and off with lcd.setBacklight(HIGH) or lcd.setBacklight(LOW).

You can permanently turn off the backlight by removing the physical jumper on the back of the module.

Changing the I2C bus address

If you want to use more than one module, or have another device on the I2C bus with address 0x27 then you’ll need to change the address used on the module. There are eight options to choose from, and these are selected by soldering over one or more of the following spots:

16 x 2 character LCD (white text blue background) with parallel interface from PMD Way

There are eight possible combinations, and these are described in Table 4 of the PCF8574 data sheet which can be downloaded from the NXP website. If you’re unsure about the bus address used by the module, simply connect it to your Arduino as described earlier and run the I2C scanner sketch from the Arduino playground.

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Arduino Tutorials – Chapter 42 – Numeric Keypads

Numeric keypads can provide a simple end-user alternative for various interfaces for your projects. Or if you need a lot of buttons, they can save you a lot of time with regards to construction. We’ll run through connecting them, using the Arduino library and then finish with a useful example sketch.

Numeric keypads from PMD Way

Getting Started

No matter where you get your keypads from, make sure you can get the data sheet – as this will make life easier when wiring them up. For example:

Numeric keypads from PMD Way

The data sheet is important as it will tell you which pins or connectors on the keypad are for the rows and columns. If you don’t have the data sheet – you will need to manually determine which contacts are for the rows and columns.

This can be done using the continuity function of a multimeter (the buzzer). Start by placing one probe on pin 1, the other probe on pin 2, and press the keys one by one. Make a note of when a button completes the circuit, then move onto the next pin. Soon you will know which is which. For example, on the example keypad pins 1 and 5 are for button “1″, 2 and 5 for “4″, etc…

At this point please download and install the keypad Arduino library. Now we’ll demonstrate how to use both keypads in simple examples. 

Using a 12 digit keypad

We’ll use the small black keypad, an Arduino Uno-compatible and an LCD with an I2C interface for display purposes. If you don’t have an LCD you could always send the text to the serial monitor instead.

Wire up your LCD then connect the keypad to the Arduino in the following manner:
  • Keypad row 1 to Arduino digital 5
  • Keypad row 2 to Arduino digital 4
  • Keypad row 3 to Arduino digital 3
  • Keypad row 4 to Arduino digital 2
  • Keypad column 1 to Arduino digital 8
  • Keypad column 2 to Arduino digital 7
  • Keypad column 3 to Arduino digital 6

If your keypad is different to ours, take note of the lines in the sketch from:

// keypad type definition

As you need to change the numbers in the arrays rowPins[ROWS] and colPins[COLS]. You enter the digital pin numbers connected to the rows and columns of the keypad respectively.

Furthermore, the array keys stores the values displayed in the LCD when a particular button is pressed. You can see we’ve matched it with the physical keypad used, however you can change it to whatever you need. But for now, enter and upload the following sketch once you’re satisfied with the row/pin number allocations:

/* Numeric keypad and I2C LCD
   http://tronixstuff.com
   Uses Keypad library for Arduino
   http://www.arduino.cc/playground/Code/Keypad
   by Mark Stanley, Alexander Brevig */

#include "Keypad.h"
#include "Wire.h" // for I2C LCD
#include "LiquidCrystal_I2C.h" // for I2C bus LCD module 
// http://www.dfrobot.com/wiki/index.php/I2C/TWI_LCD1602_Module_(SKU:_DFR0063)
LiquidCrystal_I2C lcd(0x27,16,2);  // set the LCD address to 0x27 for a 16 chars and 2 line display

// keypad type definition
const byte ROWS = 4; //four rows
const byte COLS = 3; //three columns
char keys[ROWS][COLS] =
 {{'1','2','3'},
  {'4','5','6'},
  {'7','8','9'},
  {'*','0','#'}};

byte rowPins[ROWS] = {
  5, 4, 3, 2}; //connect to the row pinouts of the keypad
byte colPins[COLS] = {
  8, 7, 6}; // connect to the column pinouts of the keypad

int count=0;

Keypad keypad = Keypad( makeKeymap(keys), rowPins, colPins, ROWS, COLS );

void setup()
{
  lcd.init();          // initialize the lcd
  lcd.backlight(); // turn on LCD backlight
}

void loop()
{
  char key = keypad.getKey();
  if (key != NO_KEY)
  {
    lcd.print(key);
    count++;
    if (count==17)
    {
      lcd.clear();
      count=0;
    }
  }
}

And the results of the sketch are shown in this video.

So now you can see how the button presses can be translated into data for use in a sketch. We’ll now repeat this demonstration with the larger keypad.

Using a 16 digit keypad

We’ll use the larger 4×4 keypad, an Arduino Uno-compatible and for a change the I2C LCD from Akafugu for display purposes. Again, if you don’t have an LCD you could always send the text to the serial monitor instead. Wire up the LCD and then connect the keypad to the Arduino in the following manner:

  • Keypad row 1 (pin eight) to Arduino digital 5
  • Keypad row 2 (pin 1) to Arduino digital 4
  • Keypad row 3 (pin 2) to Arduino digital 3
  • Keypad row 4 (pin 4) to Arduino digital 2
  • Keypad column 1 (pin 3) to Arduino digital 9
  • Keypad column 2 (pin 5) to Arduino digital 8
  • Keypad column 3 (pin 6) to Arduino digital 7
  • Keypad column 4 (pin 7) to Arduino digital 6
Now for the sketch – take note how we have accommodated for the larger numeric keypad:
  • the extra column in the array char keys[]
  • the extra pin in the array colPins[]
  • and the byte COLS = 4.
/* Numeric keypad and I2C LCD
   http://tronixstuff.com
   Uses Keypad library for Arduino
   http://www.arduino.cc/playground/Code/Keypad
   by Mark Stanley, Alexander Brevig */

#include "Keypad.h"
#include "Wire.h" // for I2C LCD
#include "TWILiquidCrystal.h"
// http://store.akafugu.jp/products/26
LiquidCrystal lcd(12, 11, 5, 4, 3, 2);

const byte ROWS = 4; //four rows
const byte COLS = 4; //four columns
char keys[ROWS][COLS] =
 {{'1','2','3','A'},
  {'4','5','6','B'},
  {'7','8','9','C'},
  {'*','0','#','D'}};
byte rowPins[ROWS] = {
  5, 4, 3, 2}; //connect to the row pinouts of the keypad
byte colPins[COLS] = {
  9, 8, 7, 6}; //connect to the column pinouts of the keypad
int count=0;

Keypad keypad = Keypad( makeKeymap(keys), rowPins, colPins, ROWS, COLS );

void setup()
{
  Serial.begin(9600);
  lcd.begin(16, 2);
  lcd.print("Keypad test!");  
  delay(1000);
  lcd.clear();
}

void loop()
{
  char key = keypad.getKey();
  if (key != NO_KEY)
  {
    lcd.print(key);
    Serial.print(key);
    count++;
    if (count==17)
    {
      lcd.clear();
      count=0;
    }
  }
}

And again you can see the results of the sketch above in this video.

And now for an example project, one which is probably the most requested use of the numeric keypad…

Example Project – PIN access system

The most-requested use for a numeric keypad seems to be a “PIN” style application, where the Arduino is instructed to do something based on a correct number being entered into the keypad. The following sketch uses the hardware described for the previous sketch and implements a six-digit PIN entry system. The actions to take place can be inserted in the functions correctPIN() and incorrectPIN(). And the PIN is set in the array char PIN[6]. With a little extra work you could create your own PIN-change function as well. 

// PIN switch with 16-digit numeric keypad
// http://tronixstuff.com
#include "Keypad.h"
#include <Wire.h>
#include <TWILiquidCrystal.h>
LiquidCrystal lcd(12, 11, 5, 4, 3, 2);

const byte ROWS = 4; //four rows
const byte COLS = 4; //four columns
char keys[ROWS][COLS] =
{
  {
    '1','2','3','A'  }
  ,
  {
    '4','5','6','B'  }
  ,
  {
    '7','8','9','C'  }
  ,
  {
    '*','0','#','D'  }
};
byte rowPins[ROWS] = {
  5, 4, 3, 2}; //connect to the row pinouts of the keypad
byte colPins[COLS] = {
  9, 8, 7, 6}; //connect to the column pinouts of the keypad

Keypad keypad = Keypad( makeKeymap(keys), rowPins, colPins, ROWS, COLS );

char PIN[6]={
  '1','2','A','D','5','6'}; // our secret (!) number
char attempt[6]={ 
  '0','0','0','0','0','0'}; // used for comparison
int z=0;

void setup()
{
  Serial.begin(9600);
  lcd.begin(16, 2);
  lcd.print("PIN Lock ");
  delay(1000);
  lcd.clear();
  lcd.print("  Enter PIN...");
}

void correctPIN() // do this if correct PIN entered
{
  lcd.print("* Correct PIN *");
  delay(1000);
  lcd.clear();
  lcd.print("  Enter PIN...");
}

void incorrectPIN() // do this if incorrect PIN entered
{
  lcd.print(" * Try again *");
  delay(1000);
  lcd.clear();
  lcd.print("  Enter PIN...");
}

void checkPIN()
{
  int correct=0;
  int i;
  for ( i = 0;   i < 6 ;  i++ )
  {

    if (attempt[i]==PIN[i])
    {
      correct++;
    }
  }
  if (correct==6)
  {
    correctPIN();
  } 
  else
  {
    incorrectPIN();
  }

  for (int zz=0; zz<6; zz++) 
  {
    attempt[zz]='0';
  }
}

void readKeypad()
{
  char key = keypad.getKey();
  if (key != NO_KEY)
  {
    attempt[z]=key;
    z++;
    switch(key)
    {
    case '*':
      z=0;
      break;
    case '#':
      z=0;
      delay(100); // for extra debounce
      lcd.clear();
      checkPIN();
      break;
    }
  }
}

void loop()
{
  readKeypad();
}

The project is demonstrated in this video.

Conclusion

So now you have the ability to use twelve and sixteen-button keypads with your Arduino systems. I’m sure you will come up with something useful and interesting using the keypads in the near future.

This post is brought to you by pmdway.com – everything for makers and electronics enthusiasts, with free delivery worldwide.

To keep up to date with new posts at tronixstuff.com, please subscribe to the mailing list in the box on the right, or follow us on twitter @tronixstuff.

Arduino Tutorials – Chapter 22 – the AREF pin

Learn how to measure smaller voltages with greater accuracy using your Arduino.

In this tutorial we’ll look at how you can measure smaller voltages with greater accuracy using the analogue input pins on your Arduino or compatible board in conjunction with the AREF pin. However first we’ll do some revision to get you up to speed. Please read this post entirely before working with AREF the first time.

Arduino Uno from PMD Way

Revision

You may recall from the first few chapters in our series that we used the analogRead() function to measure the voltage of an electrical current from sensors and so on using one of the analogue input pins. The value returned from analogRead() would be between zero an 1023, with zero representing zero volts and 1023 representing the operating voltage of the Arduino board in use.

And when we say the operating voltage – this is the voltage available to the Arduino after the power supply circuitry. For example, if you have a typical Arduino Uno board and run it from the USB socket – sure, there is 5V available to the board from the USB socket on your computer or hub – but the voltage is reduced slightly as the current winds around the circuit to the microcontroller – or the USB source just isn’t up to scratch.

This can easily be demonstrated by connecting an Arduino Uno to USB and putting a multimeter set to measure voltage across the 5V and GND pins. Some boards will return as low as 4.8 V, some higher but still below 5V. So if you’re gunning for accuracy, power your board from an external power supply via the DC socket or Vin pin – such as 9V DC. Then after that goes through the power regulator circuit you’ll have a nice 5V, for example:

Arduino Uno from PMD Way

This is important as the accuracy of any analogRead() values will be affected by not having a true 5 V. If you don’t have any option, you can use some maths in your sketch to compensate for the drop in voltage. For example, if your voltage is 4.8V – the analogRead() range of 0~1023 will relate to 0~4.8V and not 0~5V. This may sound trivial, however if you’re using a sensor that returns a value as a voltage (e.g. the TMP36 temperature sensor) – the calculated value will be wrong. So in the interests of accuracy, use an external power supply.

Why does analogRead() return a value between 0 and 1023?

This is due to the resolution of the ADC. The resolution (for this article) is the degree to which something can be represented numerically. The higher the resolution, the greater accuracy with which something can be represented. We measure resolution in the terms of the number of bits of resolution.

For example, a 1-bit resolution would only allow two (two to the power of one) values – zero and one. A 2-bit resolution would allow four (two to the power of two) values – zero, one, two and three. If we tried to measure  a five volt range with a two-bit resolution, and the measured voltage was four volts, our ADC would return a numerical value of 3 – as four volts falls between 3.75 and 5V. It is easier to imagine this with the following image:

Arduino AREF

 So with our example ADC with 2-bit resolution, it can only represent the voltage with four possible resulting values. If the input voltage falls between 0 and 1.25, the ADC returns numerical 0; if the voltage falls between 1.25 and 2.5, the ADC returns a numerical value of 1. And so on. With our Arduino’s ADC range of 0~1023 – we have 1024 possible values – or 2 to the power of 10. So our Arduinos have an ADC with a 10-bit resolution.

So what is AREF? 

To cut a long story short, when your Arduino takes an analogue reading, it compares the voltage measured at the analogue pin being used against what is known as the reference voltage. In normal analogRead use, the reference voltage is the operating voltage of the board. For the more popular Arduino boards such as the Uno, Mega, Duemilanove and Leonardo/Yún boards, the operating voltage of 5V. If you have an Arduino Due board, the operating voltage is 3.3V. If you have something else – check the Arduino product page or ask your board supplier.

So if you have a reference voltage of 5V, each unit returned by analogRead() is valued at 0.00488 V. (This is calculated by dividing 1024 into 5V). What if we want to measure voltages between 0 and 2, or 0 and 4.6? How would the ADC know what is 100% of our voltage range?

And therein lies the reason for the AREF pin. AREF means Analogue REFerence. It allows us to feed the Arduino a reference voltage from an external power supply. For example, if we want to measure voltages with a maximum range of 3.3V, we would feed a nice smooth 3.3V into the AREF pin – perhaps from a voltage regulator IC. Then the each step of the ADC would represent around 3.22 millivolts (divide 1024 into 3.3).

Note that the lowest reference voltage you can have is 1.1V. There are two forms of AREF – internal and external, so let’s check them out.

External AREF

An external AREF is where you supply an external reference voltage to the Arduino board. This can come from a regulated power supply, or if you need 3.3V you can get it from the Arduino’s 3.3V pin. If you are using an external power supply, be sure to connect the GND to the Arduino’s GND pin. Or if you’re using the Arduno’s 3.3V source – just run a jumper from the 3.3V pin to the AREF pin.

To activate the external AREF, use the following in void setup():

analogReference(EXTERNAL); // use AREF for reference voltage

This sets the reference voltage to whatever you have connected to the AREF pin – which of course will have a voltage between 1.1V and the board’s operation voltage.

Very important note – when using an external voltage reference, you must set the analogue reference to EXTERNAL before using analogRead(). This will prevent you from shorting the active internal reference voltage and the AREF pin, which can damage the microcontroller on the board.

If necessary for your application, you can revert back to the board’s operating voltage for AREF (that is – back to normal) with the following:

analogReference(DEFAULT);

Now to demonstrate external AREF at work. Using a 3.3V AREF, the following sketch measures the voltage from A0 and displays the percentage of total AREF and the calculated voltage:

#include <LiquidCrystal.h>
LiquidCrystal lcd(8,9,4,5,6,7);

int analoginput = 0; // our analog pin
int analogamount = 0; // stores incoming value
float percentage = 0; // used to store our percentage value
float voltage =0; // used to store voltage value

void setup()
{
  lcd.begin(16, 2);
  analogReference(EXTERNAL); // use AREF for reference voltage
}

void loop()
{
  lcd.clear();
  analogamount=analogRead(analoginput);
  percentage=(analogamount/1024.00)*100;
  voltage=analogamount*3.222; // in millivolts
  lcd.setCursor(0,0);
  lcd.print("% of AREF: ");
  lcd.print(percentage,2);
  lcd.setCursor(0,1);  
  lcd.print("A0 (mV): ");
  lcd.println(voltage,2);
  delay(250);
}

The results of the sketch above are shown in the following video:

Internal AREF

The microcontrollers on our Arduino boards can also generate an internal reference voltage of 1.1V and we can use this for AREF work. Simply use the line:

analogReference(INTERNAL);

For Arduino Mega boards, use:

analogReference(INTERNAL1V1);

in void setup() and you’re off. If you have an Arduino Mega there is also a 2.56V reference voltage available which is activated with:

analogReference(INTERNAL2V56);

Finally – before settling on the results from your AREF pin, always calibrate the readings against a known good multimeter.

Conclusion

The AREF function gives you more flexibility with measuring analogue signals. If you are interested in using specific ADC components, we have tutorials on the ADS1110 16-bit ADC and the NXP PCF 8591 8-bit A/D and D/A IC.

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